THE QUEEN OF SWEDEN, CARDINAL
GIOVANBATTISTA DE LUCA, AND THE
MODERNIZATION OF
THE ECCLESIASTICAL STATE*
Rome
University of
Camerino
CONTENTS: 1. Christina of Sweden. Queen of
Rome. – 2. Giovan Battista De Luca. The
pope’s jurist. – 3. A cordial friendship. – 4. Abstract.
1.
– Christina of Sweden. Queen of Rome
Christina had become queen at six years of age, upon
the death of her father, Gustavus Adolphus the Great; at eighteen, she became
Queen of Sweden in her own right. It is our good fortune to have an account of
her early years in her own voice[1]. Although she had received a good political education, as she showed at
the start of her reign, her interests were focused above all on letters, the
arts, and philosophy. She had studied Latin, Greek, Italian, French, and
German. Unable to rival the military genius of her father, one of the great
commanders of his time, she believed she could equal him through culture. She invited
to court some of Europe’s most eminent philosophers, scientists, and men of
letters. Her cultural interests kept her away from politics and the labours of
government, causing discontent among her subjects, who also accused her of
overspending and of surrounding herself with incompetent favourites.
In 1654, against the resistance of family members, the
Court, and her councillors, she renounced the throne; at any rate, she believed
women were “unable to rule,” as she was to write in her autobiography – perhaps
an a posteriori justification of so
sensational a gesture. However, her proclaimed conviction that women were unfit
to govern did not prevent her from unsuccessfully vying for the crown of Naples
and that of Poland when the circumstance arose. Perhaps it was Lutheran Sweden
that was too confining for her; in fact, she had begun to move closer to
Catholicism, in the growing conviction that a broader intellectual freedom was
possible within the context of the Catholic religion. In this, she was also influenced
by Descartes, himself a fervent Catholic.
With her abdication she had obtained a good appanage
and the right to retain the title of queen. Having yielded the crown to her
cousin Charles Gustav, she left Sweden and undertook the long journey to Italy,
a country for which she had always harboured admiration. It was a physical
journey, a political journey, but above all a spiritual journey that brought
the new convert to her natural home. By way of the Netherlands, she reached
Innsbruck where, in the Royal Chapel, she was baptized. The queen added
Alexandra to her name in honour of Pope Alexander VII.
On 03 December 1655, Cristina made her solemn entry
into the Eternal City, where she was welcomed with all honours. A few months
later, the Pope had the queen sent the medal “showing her entry into Rome”[2].
The Queen had reached Rome accompanied by her not
unearned renown as an outlandish person of bizarre and unconventional
character. Upon reaching the Eternal City, she maintained her unusual habits,
such as riding in male garb, which most people found disconcerting. [3] Moreover, the daily life of rosaries, mass, and prayers was rather
tiresome for the restless guest who showed her impatience on more than one
occasion. Her art acquisitions also raised some eyebrows: Alexander VII wrote
that the knight Michelangelo Vanni had shown him the Queen’s Paolo Veronese
paintings that were “the least lewd”[4].
In Palazzo Farnese, where she established her first
Roman residence, and then at Palazzo Riario-Corsini, she gathered together an
Academy, later to be named Arcadia[5], frequented by musicians, men of letters, and poets: whoever could
satisfy the curiosities and interests that earned Christina the tile of Minerva
of the North[6].
Meetings were held in a room beside the library in the
magnificently restored and renovated Palazzo Riario[7]. The palace was enriched by a large, luxuriant park quite dear to the
queen, who devoted herself to it with skill and passion; the park is Rome’s
present-day Botanical Garden. The queen loved music and owned a certain number
of excellent instruments. Alessandro Scarlatti was her maestro di cappella and he dedicated his second opera to her.
Christina also penned the libretto for an opera she would have liked Scarlatti
to compose the music for – an honour the maestro refused. Arcangelo Corelli
also played for her and her guests. The beautiful and greatly talented virtuoso
Angelica Quadrelli performed for her, both as singer and on the harpsichord,
lute, and oboe. Women were prohibited from performing in public in Rome, and
Quadrelli, joined by her mother and sister, was housed at Palazzo Riario
against the orders of the Pope, who wanted to see the beautiful artist
“sheltered” in a convent. Christina was in fact often accused of harbouring single
women of reproachable conduct: women who had fled their homes, theatre
performers, intellectuals; all brought together under the broad and
reprehensible category of “free women,” as the queen herself liked to be
considered, faithful to what she had been taught by her friend and mentor
Descartes. Her interests in the esoteric disciplines and her “suspected”
alchemy were also cause for discontent[8].
The Academy was also frequented by some cardinals,
with Cardinal Decio Azzolini soon gaining prominence among them: young,
brilliant, cultured, intelligent and highly capable, he had risen quickly at
the Vatican[9]. A profound friendship grew between the queen and the young cardinal,
raising quite a bit of gossip. No one could ever prove the existence of a
sexual relationship between them, and the cardinal himself, when the Pope
recommended prudence, replied to the pontiff with assurances that his actions
were wholly proper. At the time of the Counter-Reformation, the prelates’
behaviour had to be above reproach. The cardinal was charmed by the queen’s
blue eyes, by her complex personality marked by intelligence and intense
emotion, by her learned flamboyance, and by her political utility. He remained
by her side for thirty years, and spurred her to write her autobiography.
Among the learned men who frequented the Academy,
Giovanni Battista de Luca held a pre-eminent position.
2. – Giovan Battista De
Luca. The pope’s jurist
Giovan Battista De Luca took up residence in Rome in
1644. Born in 1614 in Venosa, a town in Lucania[10], he began his studies in Salerno under Salimbene da Siena, who taught
lessons in the most elegant Latin followed by discussion with his students in
Italian – a method his young pupil greatly appreciated. In 1631, he moved to
Naples where he earned his doctorate in law and devoted himself to the legal
profession at the most important Neapolitan courts, and where he established
close relationships with the Society of Jesus. Settling definitively in Rome,
his fame as jurist and the protection of the Ludovisi family gained him entry
into the most important circles of the pontifical court. The great legal
competence that had secured his important position allowed him to skilfully negotiate
the twists and turns, the intrigue, and the traps of the Curia he had joined[11].
A highly successful lawyer, he practised the
profession for about thirty years. His office, where numerous employees and
collaborators worked, was famed for its rich library. Derived from his practice
was Theatrum Veritatis et Iustitiae[12], an impressive, multi-volume work collecting an enormous mass of
opinions in the most varied fields of law: civil, canon, and feudal. The Theatrum was followed by a sort of
compendium in Italian, Il Dottor Volgare,
which had the virtue of founding the Italian legal lexicon. In 1658, he was
made the King of Spain’s advocate in Rome.
De Luca had joined the circle of cardinals created by
Innocent X and later also earned the esteem of Alexander VII, Cardinal Fabio
Chigi, who was made pope in 1655. That same year, De Luca took the minor
orders, and in 1676 was ordained priest. The jurist, who had for some time
devoted his efforts, with commitment and competence, to furthering his studies
on the system, administration, and political and legal organization of the
Papal State, became one of the new pontiff’s closest collaborators. Appointed
auditor and secretary for defence statements, he was tasked with following, day
by day, the complex political and diplomatic manoeuvrings in Italy and Europe.
The new Pope was a profoundly devout man, a scholar
who led an ascetic life. An intense lover of the arts, he dedicated his efforts
to the urban renewal of Rome, which he enriched with notable architectural works:
among other things, he was responsible for the colonnade at St. Peter’s. When
the Counter-Reformation was in full swing, enlarging and adorning the city was
also a way to manifest the strength and vitality of the Catholic Church. The
attention that Alexander VII dedicated to the operation is shown by his diary
in which he notes the almost daily relations with “his” artists: Bernini,
Borromini, Pietro da Cortona, and so on[13]. Immensely cultured, he left a rich library named for him: Biblioteca
Alessandrina; his tomb at St. Peter’s is the work of Bernini.
With Il Principe cristiano[14], written at the request of the Queen of Sweden and a work of
seventeenth-century treatise writing, De Luca had initiated a reflection on the
meaning of State, and on the obligation and duties of the Prince and of his
subjects. Law, as a bearing structure of civil society, is the linchpin of
government action for the public good. Lastly, the jurist dealt with the theme
of the Christian Prince’s proper attitude towards religion[15] and the relationships between secular jurisdiction and ecclesiastical
power.
In 1676, Benedetto Odescalchi became Pope Innocent XI:
young, vigorous, and essentially extraneous to the factions clashing at the
pontifical court. The ceremonies for the coronation were of the utmost
simplicity. The pope took up lodging in a modest building inside the Quirinal
Palace. De Luca was among his closest collaborators, as part of a “triumvirate”
that aided the Pope for whom he served as interpreter and advisor, tasked with
proposing a programme of reforms necessitated above all by the financial
disarray in a delicate and difficult phase of reordering and reorganizing the
Church of Rome.
The jurist had identified the internal problems and
the singularity of the Church, of the sovereignty of the Pope, universal bishop
and temporal prince[16], and of its consequences on the concrete life of the state: a possible
model for a modern State structure. For some time, he devoted his efforts to
studying the organization and administration of the pontifical State, analyzed
its singular nature, and acutely grasped its problems, specialties, and
anomalies, but also the possible form of a “modern” State administered by
officials rather than by the sovereign’s family members. He had emphasized
particular juridical aspects – the problems of the courts – and was at the
centre of the congregation of the Reform of the courts. In the pontifical
State, multiple juridical sources overlapped and became confused with one
another, in a tangle that at times grew inextricable, suggesting and permitting
interpretations that often disagreed or conflicted with one another. In 1681,
the Pope made him Cardinal. In support of the Pope’s action to promote the
reordering of the judicial system and the discipline of the clergy, he wrote
that the prince’s laws praevalere debent[17].
The cardinal devoted his efforts above all to the
great themes of currency and of an administrative reform that was to lead to
the construction of a new State figure: both as a moral and social body, and as
an economic and financial one. He clearly distinguished the spiritual sphere
from the temporal one which enjoyed greater autonomy with the reorganization of
the central offices and the solution of questions of immunity and jurisdiction.
The transformation of the State in a “secular” sense dealt with the issue of
the “franchises” and of the “immunities” that were enjoyed – by the patent
holders of the various offices[18], and by churchmen in general – suggesting measures and provisions that
attracted to him the aversion of those who, in the current system, enjoyed
lucrative or prestigious positions and privileges. The limitation or regulation
of the privileged regime in force derived from a profound awareness of the
institutional and constitutional consequences not only within the Papal State
but also in its relations with foreign potentates. In contrast with France,
which boasted the age-old regalie[19], he expressed intolerance for secular claims to interfere with issues
of pertinence to the Church[20] and with the privileges and immunities of ambassadors and of
representatives of foreign powers in general[21]. In this sense, his work provided a sound theoretical background for
defining the frequent disputes among states, before the need was felt elsewhere
to establish new rules of international law. His plans for reform, and the work
he carried out with the strong determination of a brusque and impetuous
character not prone to compromise, giving him the reputation of a haughty and
unpleasant man, resulted in difficult relations with the Curia, and in strong
enmities and a sort of persecution on the part of those who feared losing their
positions of privilege. Among the proposed reforms, the one abolishing the role
of the Cardinal-Nephew was particularly opposed.
Although the popes declared they wished to be more
loved than feared, in government work they were not far from secular monarchs
who gave to family members – who were (not always justifiably) held to be more
faithful – important and delicate roles and positions. The figure of the
Cardinal-Nephew fits into the European monarchies ’family model’ for managing
power. The papal monarchy lacked a stable link between the family’s sovereign
and the State. The Sovereign Pontiff had no dynastic base; he was an elected
sovereign, usually rather elderly, who through the strengthening of his family,
and the marriages of his nephews and nieces, secured a power base and the
support of the local oligarchies: a model not unlike that of all the European
monarchies. «The office of Cardinal–Nephew or Master responded to the pope’s
need to be able to count on the permanent aid of a safe person, of whose
confidentiality he could be certain»[22]. But times were changing. The great monarchies were placing less and
less reliance on the bonds of family relationship, to the benefit of a class of
professional administrators and bureaucrats. Alexander VII himself had opposed
nepotism and limited its effects. The office of Cardinal-Nephew was banned by
Innocent XII in 1692.
The plan to reform the state of the Church from
within, and to transform it into a modern State as had taken place in the other
European countries including Sweden, was followed attentively by Queen
Christina who, although she had left the throne, observed with interest what
was taking place on the European political landscape. Her interests in
politics, and those of the Papal State in particular, were shared by Cardinal
Azzolini.
3. – A cordial friendship
The cardinal and the jurist had the same interests,
moved in the same environments, and were acquainted with, esteemed, and
appreciated each other. In all likelihood, it was Azzolini who introduced the
esteemed jurist into the circle of the Queen of Sweden, who appreciated him. De
Luca stayed quite close to the queen, and assiduously frequented the academy
and the private meetings taking place at Palazzo Riario, where academic
entertainments proposed by the Queen on the pre-eminence of justice were held –
a theme to which Christina, although she herself had abdicated the affairs of
government, devoted great attention.
To his royal friend, the jurist dedicated Il Cavaliere
e la Dama (“the knight and the lady”), a tract reflecting Baroque thinking,
based on the court and its rules and addressing a courtly, city-dwelling, and
cosmopolitan elite. The author introduced new elements, like the strong claim
for jurisprudence: and it could not be otherwise; along with the precepts of
daily life, and the value of honour and respect, the jurist emphasized the
virtues necessary for the “civil and political government” of the public
affairs.
In his dedication «To the Holy Majesty of Queen
Christina Alexandra of Sweden», we read: «to your majesty, more than any other,
the protection of this work Il Cavaliere e la Dama is suited, because
included in your royal person are both qualities, as Queen and Lady by nature
of your sex; as King and Knight in virtus,
soul, intellect, and in a more than virile strength and courage …»[23].
This identification with the two figures – of the lady
and of the knight – appears to herald the resurgence of the that androgynous
human being, both male and female, described by Plato, that Zeus had separated,
fearing the excessive power of a presence that included within itself so many
qualities and such strength[24].
The duality of knight and lady in the person of the
Queen of Sweden had been sensed by Azzolini: the shrewd cardinal saw the effect
the paternal figure, the great warrior, had on his daughter. The king had
chosen to raise his heiress as a male, ready to succeed him on the throne. The
girl had made her father’s ambitions her own: when she became a woman, she
identified with them without hesitation, developing a rather ambiguous
personality that was to influence her entire life to come. In Christina, we see
two different personalities come together – one of which, of course
unwittingly, foreshadowing Virginia Woolf’s fascinating Orlando[25].
Il cavaliere e la
dama and Il
principe cristiano are from the same year, 1675, and are the result of the Ozi tusculani[26]; the erudite and pleasant conversations held in the Queens’s lush,
perfumed garden on the slopes of Janiculum. The conversation discussed the
obligations of knights, the qualities of ladies, the tasks of the Christian
prince, and the nature of the ecclesiastical State and of its independence from
the pressing influences of the French and Spanish crowns. The Queen, the
Cardinal, and the jurist were convinced that the higher interests of the Church
should prevail over any other.
A close
group of eleven cardinals had gathered around Cardinal Azzolini, with the
purpose of influencing the Sacred Council, the Pope’s Senate, during the
Conclave. The declaredly neutral cardinals proposed determining the pope’s
election thanks to the ability to shift their votes from one position to
another. Independence from foreign influences allowed them to condition the
Conclave[27].
The election of Alexander VII (Fabio Chigi) in 1655 had marked the group’s
victory. Thanks to its action, the influences of Spain and France weighed on
the pontiff’s election far less than they did in the past.
The
Spanish ambassador, the Duke of Terranova, called the group the “flying
squadron” (“lo squadrone volante”).
The election of Alexander VII had increased the prestige of Azzolini and of the
squadrone volante, also called fazione di Dio (the “faction of God”) or
setta libertina (the “libertine
sect”). The squadrone had found a
patroness in the Queen of Sweden, who shared its ideas and, on the strength of
her diplomatic relationships, acted as its ambassador[28].
The squadrone was decisive in the election
of Giulio Rospigliosi; during his long diplomatic activity, Clement IX had been
in contact with the Queen of Sweden, with whom he shared interests and frequent
encounters with poets and men of letters. Himself the authors of dramas to be
set to music, the Pope played a decisive role in the development of the Roman
musical theatre[29].
The role
of the squadrone volante later
started to fade.
Abstract
La regina di Svezia,
che aveva rinunciato al trono e si era convertita al cattolicesimo, stabilì la
sua residenza a Roma nel palazzo Riario-Corsini.
Donna di grande cultura e curiosità per ogni
aspetto del sapere umano , raccolse intorno a sé una scelta Accademia di
letterati, artisti, musicisti e quanti potevano soddisfare la sua vorace ansia
di conoscenza. Tra i frequentatori dello dotto circolo troviamo il più illustre
giurista della sua epoca: il cardinale Giovannni Battista de Luca. Il cardinale
fu legato da una vera amicizia alla regina che intratteneva, nella quiete del
giardino del palazzo, con argomenti per lo più legati all’ arte di governo.La
regina che condivideva, con il dotto giurista, il progetto di modernizzazione
dello stato pontificio.